Ancient Sculptures, Mechanotherapy, and Modern Fitness Ideals

Back in ancient Greece, fitness was deeply tied to both aesthetics and functionality. Sculptures of gods and athletes like Apollo or Hercules depicted muscular, symmetrical bodies that were powerful but graceful. These ideals weren’t just about looking good; they were a reflection of strength, endurance, and agility — attributes necessary for survival and competition.

Fast forward to the Renaissance period, where fashion and styles reflected a new appreciation for proportion and elegance. Men and women alike embraced clothing that highlighted natural curves and balanced forms—fitted bodices and flowing gowns for women and tailored, yet softer, silhouettes for men. This era celebrated a refined and graceful physique, emphasizing elegance over muscularity.

In the Victorian era, ideals shifted again, especially for women. The hourglass figure became the pinnacle of beauty, with tightly cinched waists achieved through corsetry, full skirts, and accentuated hips and busts. The physiques of both men and women during this era were often shaped and exaggerated by fashion and garment construction, prioritizing appearance and social symbolism over natural athleticism or physical ability. With the comforts of modernity, physically fit men became desirable not for genetics of survival skills, but for the traits of self-discipline and moral standing, as seen in the “Muscular Christianity” movement of the mid-19^th century. Women pursued physical fitness only as far as keeping their figures in line with the fashions of the times, focusing mainly on calisthenics and dance. Because physical fitness was not a natural byproduct of the laborious lifestyles of prior centuries, people had to get creative to maintain their physiques. Dr. Gustav Zander, a Swedish physician and orthopedist of the mid-to-late 19^th century, developed the first gym machines called “mechanotherapy”, which he designed to gradually build muscles through progressive resistance. This concept, mostly used therapeutically for the wealthy, would pave the way for exercise machines as we know them today. (1)

From the early 20th century to today, ideal body types have shifted dramatically—from the slim, lean figures admired in the 1920s to the curvier, hourglass shapes popularized by movie stars like Marilyn Monroe in the 1950s, and then to the bulky, muscular physiques that defined the bodybuilding phenomenon of the 1970s and ’80s (looking at you, Schwarzenegger). While these aesthetic trends have come and gone, one thing has remained constant: the pursuit of health and wellness. Beyond changing styles and body ideals, people have always sought to improve their well-being, build strength, and maintain vitality. At its core, fitness is about enhancing health— an enduring goal that transcends passing trends and fashions.

What Hasn’t Changed? The Value of Fitness and Ability

Resistance and cardiovascular training continue to be essential for maintaining health and function across all ages. As of 2018, the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion recommends 150 to 300 minutes of moderate-intensity activity for substantial health benefits. (2) In a large study published by the journal Circulation, it was found that adults who performed two to four times the recommended physical activity saw a 26-31% reduction in all-cause mortality and a 28-38% reduction in cardiovascular disease mortality. (3)

A well-balanced program combining resistance and cardio training builds muscle strength and power, improves body composition and flexibility, and enhances cardiovascular health. It also supports mental well-being and cognitive function across all ages. For older adults, resistance training is especially important for preserving muscle mass and slowing the natural loss of bone density, which helps reduce the risk of falls and fractures. Regular physical activity also improves insulin sensitivity, lowering the risk of type 2 diabetes, and has been associated with a decreased risk of cognitive decline and dementia. (4)

Beyond appearance, physical ability and athleticism are timeless aspects of fitness that truly impact quality of life. Everyday tasks- climbing stairs, carrying groceries, gardening, playing with your children, or even getting up from a chair without assistance- rely on strength, agility, endurance, and mobility. Maintaining and improving these attributes through consistent training helps preserve independence as we age and boosts confidence at any stage of life.

There’s no better time to start your fitness journey than right now. At Pike Fitness, we encourage everyone to embrace a holistic view of fitness. It’s not just about fitting certain standards of physical beauty but about building a body that supports you and your goals—whether that’s running a 5K, lifting your kids, or simply feeling energized each day. Trends will continue to evolve and new “ideal” physiques will emerge, but the timeless pursuit remains the same: becoming stronger, healthier, and more capable versions of ourselves. That is a legacy we can all be proud of.

1. Naples, Richard. “Dr. Gustav Zander’s Victorian-Era Exercise Machines Made the Bowflex Look like Child’s Play.” Com, Smithsonian Institution, 8 Jan. 2016, www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/gustav-zander-victorian-era-exercise-machines-bowflex-180957758/.
2. “Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd Edition.” Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion – HHS, Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2018, odphp.health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-09/Physical_Activity_Guidelines_2nd_edition.pdf.
3. Lee, Dong Hoon, et al. “Long-term leisure-time physical activity intensity and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: A prospective cohort of US adults.” Circulation, vol. 146, no. 7, 16 Aug. 2022, pp. 523–534, https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.121.058162.
4. Colberg, Sheri R et al. “Exercise and type 2 diabetes: the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Diabetes Association: joint position statement.” Diabetes care vol. 33,12 (2010): e147-67. doi:10.2337/dc10-9990

A professor at the University of South Carolina, Dr. Steven Blair, has reported that “cardiorespiratory fitness” is a greater risk factor for cardiovascular mortality than any of the more traditional risk factors that our medical profession typically focuses on” In a review of over 53,000 medical patients, Dr. Blair found that the most common factor leading to death was poor cardiovascular fitness; beating out factors such as hypertension, obesity, smoking, high cholesterol, and diabetes^[1].

As a marker of health, the American Heart Association recommends VO₂ Max be tested regularly in addition to resting vitals such as heart rate or blood pressure.

What is VO2 Max?

VO₂ Max is the maximal rate of oxygen consumption during exercise. Expressed as the total volume (V) of oxygen (O2) consumed per minute, (L/min) the number represents the maximum amount of oxygen you can uptake and utilize when breathing. It is common to see VO₂ Max written as a relative score, such as 65 mL/kg/min, which is found by adding body mass to the equation. It is in this way that we often see VO₂ Max scores for athletes. As a comparison, the score of an average person can range from 30-50 mL/kg/min, while athletes have been tested as high as 90+mL/kg/min.

Not to be confused with lung capacity which simply represents the amount of air you can take into the lungs with each breath. While both can be improved through training, VO₂ Max has more to do with the efficiency of the lungs than the amount of air they can actually hold. Someone with a low VO₂ Max for example might be able to breathe in 6 Liters of air in a full breath, but will only be able to uptake 2 Liters of oxygen over the course of 5 to 8 breath cycles, wasting a great deal of O2 on the exhale.

Testing Your VO₂ Max

Finding your true VO₂ Max requires participating in a graded test using aerobic exercise equipment such as a treadmill or cycle ergometer. During a test, the participant wears a mask connected to a device which measures ventilation, and the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the expired air. The test begins at a mild intensity, and gradually progresses up to maximal intensity. If you’re a serious endurance athlete or exercise physiologist, you’re likely familiar with this test, as it is a staple for assessing athletic performance.

While the test is the most accurate way to find your VO₂ Max, it requires a lot of specialized equipment, and can be relatively time consuming. It can also be risky to participate in maximal testing if you are in poor health. Luckily, there are a few alternatives for estimating VO2 Max which have been found to be very accurate.

Estimating VO₂ Max

If you want to know your VO₂ Max, but aren’t interested in getting tested at a sports physiology lab, you’re in luck. There are a few simple tests which you can self administer to find a close estimation of your VO2 Max.

• Queens College Step Test
• Cooper Test
• Rockport Walk Test
• Uth–Sørensen–Overgaard–Pedersen estimation

Improving VO₂ Max

Now that you know a little about VO₂ Max and how to find yours, you might be wondering how to improve it. Although a small percentage of the population (~10%) seems to have a fixed VO₂ Max, most people can improve theirs by simply participating in cardiorespiratory exercise ^[2]. All it takes to improve your current level of fitness is to push yourself slightly beyond your current limits. For those with low level of fitness, simply walking or performing other low intensity exercise is usually sufficient to improve VO₂ Max. If on the other hand you’ve already got a moderate level of fitness, it will take a little more than simply walking. The list below has a few great exercises for improving aerobic capacity. Try them out next time you go out for a cardio session, and if you train hard enough, you might just be the next Bjørn Dæhlie.

• Steady State Cardio
• Interval Training and HIIT
• Pace/Tempo Training
• Fartlek
• Circuit Training